Actions and perceived impact of African swine fever control measures along the smallholder pig value chain in Uganda.

Pig production in Uganda is constrained by African swine fever (ASF) which is endemic in the country. Current measures taken by the Government of Uganda in controlling ASF outbreaks include trade and livestock movement restrictions, called "quarantine." Little is known about the actions of, and impact of value chain actors in response to ASF quarantines. This study describes actions that different stakeholders in the smallholder pig value chain took, and the perceived economic impact, during ASF quarantines. Data was collected in ten focus group discussions (FGD) using participatory epidemiology tools and two key informants' (KIs) interviews with District Veterinary Officers (DVOs) of Kisoro and Moyo districts in Uganda. The results show that during ASF quarantine, pig value chain actors shifted their activities from formal places such as livestock markets, slaughter slabs, pork butcheries and pork joints to informal places such as farmers' homesteads. Farmers were perceived the most economically affected stakeholder group with forgone income due to unsold pigs, costs for implementing biosecurity measures and extra costs for feeding unsold pigs being the major perceived causes of the losses. The continued trade in pigs and pig products in informal marketplaces suggests that quarantine might not be effective for hindering activities that might spread ASF in these settings. The perceived economic losses provide an insight into the negative economic impact of the quarantine for the different stakeholders.

Serological evidence and factors associated with Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in sheep in Burkina Faso.

BACKGROUND: Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) is caused by an orthonairovirus transmitted by bites from infected ticks or by direct contact with blood or tissues of infected ticks, viraemic patients or viraemic livestock. OBJECTIVE: It was implemented to access the seropositivity and associated factors with CCHF in sheep in two provinces in Burkina Faso. METHODS: Three hundred and sixty-four sheep sera have been taken from 73 herds in four municipalities and two provinces. The double-antigen sandwich ELISA test was used to test for antibodies against CCHF virus (CCHFV). Data have also been collected using questionnaire to assess factors associated with CCHF seropositivity. RESULTS: Fifty-four (54 out to 364 sheep were seropositive given an overall seropositivity of 14.8% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 10.9%-19.8%) with an adjusted seropositivity of 13.1%. The study showed that 15.6% (95% CI: 10.2-21.0) and 14.1% (95% CI: 9.2-19.1) of sheep in the provinces of Mouhoun and Kénédougou, respectively, had antibodies against CCHFV. The highest seropositivity was found in Dédougou municipality (24.4%). The study showed that sheep from the municipalities of Dédougou (AOR = 8.4; 95% CI: 2.2-31.8), N'dorola (AOR = 14.7; 95% CI: 3.8-56.8), Sindou (AOR = 4.9; 95% CI: 1.2-20.7), sheep aged between 27 and 36 months (AOR = 6.4; 95% CI: 2.3-17.3) and sheep with ticks (AOR = 24.8; 95% CI: 7.7-80.1) were more likely to be seropositive to CCHF. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that sheep in Burkina Faso experienced contacts with CCHFV and suggests the importance of implementing control action in the country.

Exposure to multiple pathogens - serological evidence for Rift Valley fever virus, Coxiella burnetii, Bluetongue virus and Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep and goat in Mali.

An important problem for livestock production in Mali is occurrence of several infectious diseases. A particular challenge for control of pathogens that affect different species, especially in a system with mixed herds with cattle, sheep and goats. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate co-exposure with Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), Coxiella burnetii, Bluetongue virus (BTV) and Brucella spp. in different livestock species in mixed herds. With the exception of BTV these pathogens are also zoonotic. A retrospective assessment was carried out on a biobank of sera of cattle and small ruminants collected from Sikasso and Mopti regions. Nine hundred and twelve samples from cattle (n = 304), sheep (n = 318) and goat (n = 290) were screened. Serology tests were conducted using commercial kits as per the protocol of the manufacturers. Sero-prevalence for RVFV was 12.8% (Confidence Interval 95%: 9.3-17.1%); 4.7% (2.7-7.7%) and 3.1% (1.4-5.8%) in cattle, sheep and goat respectively. For Coxiella burnetii, the sero-prevalence was 55.3% (49.5-60.9%), 22.6% (18.2-27.6%), and 16.9% (12.8-21.7%); in cattle, sheep and goat respectively; and for BTV sero-prevalence was 88.8% (84.72-92.13%), 51.6% (45.9-57.2%), 56.2% (50.3-62.0%) in cattle, sheep in goat respectively. Brucella sp. had the lowest sero-prevalence and was only detected in cattle and sheep. Regional differences were observed with sero-prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in sheep and goat with BTV in goat being significantly higher in Sikasso than in Mopti (p<0.001). Evidence of exposure to two pathogens in the same animal was most common for the combination Coxiella burnetii and BTV in cattle (51.6%), followed by sheep (17.0%) and goat (15.5%). Considering the scarcity of disease occurrence and epidemiological data in most sub-saharan countries including Mali, this multi-pathogen survey provides important evidence that cattle, sheep and goat are exposed to pathogens that may negatively impact productivity and pose a risk for public health. The results from this study highlight the urgent need for a better understanding of pathogen diversity and their impact on human and animal health in order to minimize resulting risks. Given that some of the pathogens investigated here are zoonotic, establishment of One-Health surveillance system to monitor disease in animals and people is warranted. Therefore, intersectoral collaboration is recommended.

Geographic and Socioeconomic Influence on Knowledge and Practices Related to Antimicrobial Resistance among Smallholder Pig Farmers in Uganda.

To mitigate the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), antibiotic use (ABU) in the livestock sector needs to be reduced. In low- and middle-income countries, regulations have shown to be less successful in reducing ABU. Here, a bottom-up approach can complement legal frameworks, which requires an understanding of the drivers for ABU. In this study, we investigated the influence of geographic and socioeconomic settings on determinants for ABU among pig farmers in Uganda. The data were collected through a questionnaire in two districts, Lira and Mukono, and comparative statistical analyses were performed. Farmers in Lira had less access to animal health services, applied disease prevention measures less and used antibiotics more. In Mukono, it was more common to consult a veterinarian in response to disease, while in Lira it was more common to consult an animal health worker. There was no difference in how many farmers followed treatment instructions from a veterinarian, but it was more common in Lira to follow instructions from pharmacies. The findings support the need for locally tailored AMR-reducing interventions to complement regulations. To accomplish this tailoring, systematic collection of knowledge of farm structures, farm practices and access to animal health services and veterinary drugs is necessary.

Supply Chain and Delivery of Antimicrobial Drugs in Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Uganda.

This study assessed the veterinary drug supply chain in Uganda, the constraints faced by the actors, and how the challenges influence the use of antimicrobial (AMs) by livestock farmers. We carried out stakeholder consultation workshops, key informant interviews and a knowledge, practices, and awareness survey with actors of the veterinary drug supply chain. We also profiled drugs stored in 23 urban and peri-urban drug shops in Lira and Mukono districts to record the commonly sold drugs. The veterinary drug supply chain is made of several actors including wholesalers, retailers, Animal Health Service Providers (AHSP) and farmers. Nearly ninety per cent of drug retailers and veterinary practitioners did not receive specialized training in veterinary medicine, and most of veterinary practitioners have been in the drug business market for more than 10 years. Antibiotics and anti-helminthics were the most stocked drugs by retailers, with antibiotics ranking highest in terms of contribution to annual financial profits, accounting for 33%. The choice of a drug by veterinary practitioners was mainly informed by past success with efficacy of the drug, and financial capacity of the client (the farmer) to meet the treatment cost. Many veterinary practitioners were not conversant with veterinary drug policies of the country, with Mukono having a higher number (72%) compared to Lira (37%). Veterinary practitioners from Lira district compared to Mukono and those mainly serving small scale farmers relative to large scale smallholders were more knowledgeable about antibiotics and AMR. Several supply chain constraints were identified as potential drivers of misuse of antibiotics that could contribute to AMR. These included low level of education of supply chain actors, particularly drug retailers, poor handling of drugs at purchase and administration practices, low enforcement of policies and regulations, and lack of awareness of stakeholders about policies that regulate drug use. Thus, future interventions to reduce misuse of AM drugs in livestock production systems in Uganda such as capacity building, should also target veterinary input suppliers, and deliberately involve a strong policy advocacy component.

Impact of participatory training of smallholder pig farmers on knowledge, attitudes and practices regarding biosecurity for the control of African swine fever in Uganda.

We evaluated the impact of a participatory training of pig farmers on knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) of biosecurity relating to ASF control in two districts of Uganda using a randomized control trial (RCT). A total of 830 pig farmers from 32 villages were included in the study, with 425 farmers receiving training, while 405 did not. An item response theory model was used to assess the impact of the training on farmer's KAP. Logistic regression models were used to assess the factors that affected knowledge gain and change in attitude and practices after training. Focus group discussions (FGD) were carried out with selected farmers from the treatment group at the end of the intervention, to share their experiences and discuss potential factors that could hinder adoption of biosecurity in their communities. Results of the regression analyses showed that there was a significant effect of biosecurity training (p = .038) on gain in knowledge after 12 months, but there were limited changes in farmer's attitude and practice at 12 and 28 months after training. Pig production domain (peri-urban/urban production), group membership, gender (male) and education of the farmer positively influenced knowledge gain and attitude of farmers towards biosecurity. This paper provides empirical evidence on the impact of training intervention on biosecurity practices for disease prevention or control. In addition, it breaks down the components of the biosecurity practices and documents the specific challenges to its uptake by the farmers. It therefore relaxes the assumption of knowledge constraint as a barrier to uptake. The results clearly show that knowledge is not the binding constraint to uptake of the biosecurity interventions.

Integrated Approach to Facilitate Stakeholder Participation in the Control of Endemic Diseases of Livestock: The Case of Peste Des Petits Ruminants in Mali.

In Mali, small ruminants (SRs) are an important means for enhanced livelihood through income generation, especially for women and youth. Unfortunately, opportunities for livestock farmers to tap into these resources for economic growth are hindered by high burden of endemic diseases such as peste des petits ruminants (PPR). A key component for the control of PPR is vaccination of SRs. However, low participation of farmers to vaccination was identified by stakeholders of the livestock value chains as a key constraint to successful vaccination programs. This study was implemented in the framework of a project which aimed at improving the domestic ruminant livestock value chains in Mali by upscaling proven interventions in animal health, feeds and feeding and livestock marketing. The objectives of the study were to review the context of livestock vaccination in Mali and evaluate the impact of innovation platforms (IP) as a means for engaging stakeholders in the vaccination process. Desk review, key informant interviews (KII) and net-mapping were used to understand the context of livestock vaccination, while vaccination coverage and sero-monitoring together with group interviews were used to measure the impact of the intervention. IPs were created in 24 communes in three regions: 15 IPs in Sikasso, 4 IPs in Mopti and 5 IPs in Timbuktu. They developed work plans and implemented activities focusing on improving interaction among key vaccine chain delivery stakeholders such as farmers, private veterinarians, vaccine manufacturers, local leaders and public veterinary services; involving them in the planning, implementation and evaluation of vaccination programs and fostering knowledge sharing, communication and capacity building. After 2 years of implementation of IPs, vaccination coverage for SRs increased significantly in target communes. During the first year, seroprevalence rate for PPR increased from 57% (CI95: 54-60%) at baseline to 70% (CI95: 67-73%) post-vaccination in Sikasso region, while in Mopti region, seroprevalence increased from 51% (CI95: 47-55%) at baseline to 57% (CI85: 53-61%) post-vaccination. Stakeholder engagement in the vaccination process through facilitated IPs was successful in fostering participation of farmers to vaccination. However, a sustainable vaccination strategy for Mali would benefit from consolidating the IP model, supported by Government investment to strengthen and adjust the underlying public-private-partnership.

First insights into the genetic diversity and origin of Leishmania infantum in Mont Rolland (Thiès region, Senegal).

Visceral leishmaniasis is not endemic in West Africa. However, high seroprevalence of Leishmania infantum infection (one of the Leishmania species that cause visceral leishmaniasis) was detected in dogs and humans in the Mont Rolland community (close to Thiès, Senegal), despite the lack of reports concerning human clinical cases. Our aim was to genetically characterize this L. infantum population and identify its origin. We thus conducted seven field surveys in 25 villages of the Mont Rolland community between 2005 and 2009 and blood samples were collected from 205 dogs. Serological testing indicated that 92 dogs (44.9%) were positive for Leishmania infection. L. infantum was identified as the cause of infection. Analysis of 29 L. infantum isolates from these dogs by multilocus microsatellite typing and multilocus sequence typing indicated that this population had very limited genetic diversity, low level of heterozygosity and only seven different genotypes (79.3% of all isolates had the same genotype). Multilocus sequence typing showed that the Mont Rolland isolates clustered with strains from the Mediterranean basin and were separated from East African and Asian strains. Therefore, our data suggest a quite recent and unique introduction into Senegal of a L. infantum strain from the Mediterranean basin.

Seroprevalence of Leishmania infantum in a rural area of Senegal: analysis of risk factors involved in transmission to humans.

Whereas Leishmania infantum, the agent of visceral leishmaniasis (VL), is well known in North Africa, very limited data exist on its spread in West Africa, where mainly cutaneous leishmaniasis has been widely reported. Nevertheless, dogs infected with L. infantum were recently found in the Mont Rolland District in Senegal. To provide a better understanding of L. infantum epidemiology in this area, clinical and serological surveys were carried out to determine the seroprevalence of L. infantum-specific antibodies in the human population. In parallel, an analysis of environmental and individual factors associated with Leishmania antigen seropositivity was conducted to identify potential risk factors for exposure. Although no cases of VL were detected within this study, a large part of the population (73/315; 23%) was exposed to infection, with a strong age effect (being >40 years old increased the risk of being seropositive). Moreover, the presence of Nebedaye trees (Moringa oleifera) and infected dogs in the household were factors increasing the risk of exposure in household members. These results may provide important information to identify the still unknown sandfly species involved in transmission.